Human-wildlife coexistence through the lens of fishermen’s knowledge and lived experience – Nature

 

Executive Summary

This report analyzes the escalating Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) between whale populations and the Dungeness crab fishery in California, U.S.A., through the lens of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Climate change-induced shifts in marine ecosystems are intensifying this conflict, posing significant risks to conservation efforts and human livelihoods. Current mitigation strategies, which focus predominantly on ecological outcomes, fail to address the multifaceted socio-economic impacts on fishing communities, thereby hindering progress towards several SDGs. Through semi-structured interviews with 27 commercial fishermen, this study reveals the profound consequences of HWC, including threats to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 1 (No Poverty) through livelihood and identity loss. The findings underscore that integrating the local and traditional knowledge of fishing communities is a critical pathway to achieving a sustainable balance. This approach is essential for fostering human-wildlife coexistence and advancing key targets within SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) by creating more equitable and effective co-management solutions.

Introduction: Aligning Fisheries Management with Sustainable Development Goals

The world’s oceans are vital for biodiversity, nutrition, and livelihoods, making their sustainable management a global priority aligned with SDG 14 (Life Below Water). However, the impacts of climate change, as addressed by SDG 13 (Climate Action), are increasing the frequency of Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC), particularly between marine-based livelihoods and wildlife. This study examines the case of whale entanglement in California’s Dungeness crab fishery, a conflict that highlights the tension between conservation mandates and the socio-economic stability of coastal communities.

Current HWC resolution strategies often prioritize ecological metrics over human dimensions, creating an imbalance that threatens the achievement of multiple SDGs. This oversight neglects the profound impacts on fishing communities and misses opportunities to leverage their expertise for sustainable solutions. The Dungeness crab fishery, while a cornerstone of local economies and cultural identity, possesses limited political influence, leading to management decisions that can jeopardize progress towards SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).

This report advocates for an integrated approach that views fisheries as complex social-ecological systems. By centering the lived experiences of fishermen, this research aims to inform a more holistic management framework that supports human-wildlife coexistence. Such a framework is essential for developing policies that are not only ecologically sound but also socially just and economically viable, thereby contributing to a broader suite of Sustainable Development Goals, including SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).

Analysis of HWC Impacts on Sustainable Development

The investigation, based on interviews with commercial fishermen, identified a cascade of negative impacts stemming from HWC and subsequent management actions. These impacts directly challenge the principles of sustainable development by undermining economic stability, social equity, and community well-being.

SDG 8 & SDG 1: Economic and Livelihood Disruption

The core impact of HWC on fishermen is the erosion of their livelihoods, a direct setback to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 1 (No Poverty).

• Reduced Fishing Opportunity: Management actions, such as shortened fishing seasons to mitigate entanglement risk, have drastically reduced the time fishermen can spend on the water. This directly curtails their ability to earn a living from a historically stable and lucrative fishery.
• Income Losses: Participants reported significant income reductions, with some facing near-total loss of revenue. This economic precarity affects not only the fishermen but also their crews and families, threatening the financial stability of entire households.
• Threat to Viability: The combination of reduced opportunity and income loss makes it increasingly difficult for fishing operations, particularly smaller ones, to remain economically viable, pushing community members out of their traditional profession.

SDG 10 & SDG 16: Social Marginalization and Institutional Mistrust

The conflict and its management have fostered social division and eroded trust in governance, impeding progress on SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions).

1. Marginalization and Powerlessness: Fishermen expressed a pervasive sense of being marginalized and excluded from decision-making processes. This feeling of powerlessness stems from a perception that their livelihoods are considered expendable by state agencies and environmental groups.
2. Erosion of Trust: There is a significant lack of trust between fishermen and external actors, including fisheries managers and environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs). Fishermen feel that management decisions are driven by public opinion and political pressure rather than balanced, evidence-based approaches, undermining the foundation of effective and inclusive institutions.
3. Conflict and Inequity: Reduced fishing opportunities have intensified competition and conflict within the fishing fleet. This exacerbates existing inequalities, as smaller-scale operations are disproportionately impacted by restrictions compared to larger, more diversified businesses. This internal conflict undermines community cohesion and social sustainability.

SDG 11: Threats to Sustainable Coastal Communities

The cumulative impacts of HWC threaten the cultural fabric and long-term sustainability of coastal communities, a key concern of SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).

• Loss of Identity: For many participants, fishing is more than a job; it is a multi-generational way of life and a core component of their personal and cultural identity. The decline of the fishery represents a profound loss that transcends economic metrics.
• Community Decline: The Dungeness crab fishery is an economic and cultural anchor for many coastal towns. As the fishery is diminished, the vitality of these communities is put at risk, threatening local heritage and social structures.

Fishermen’s Knowledge as a Catalyst for Achieving SDGs

Despite being heavily impacted by HWC, fishermen possess invaluable expertise that can be harnessed to create sustainable solutions. Integrating their knowledge is a critical step toward achieving human-wildlife coexistence and advancing the SDGs through collaborative partnerships (SDG 17).

Integrating Local Expertise for SDG 14 (Life Below Water)

Fishermen’s contributions are essential for the effective conservation and sustainable use of marine resources, directly supporting the targets of SDG 14.

• Ecological Knowledge: Fishermen hold a wealth of empirical, real-time knowledge about the marine ecosystem, including species behavior and distribution. This “data-rich community” can corroborate and enrich scientific models used for risk assessment, leading to more accurate and dynamic management.
• On-Water Experience: With decades of experience operating alongside whales, fishermen have developed practical, on-the-ground strategies to mitigate entanglement risk. Their firsthand knowledge is crucial for designing and implementing effective, workable solutions, such as gear modifications and best practices.

Promoting Coexistence and Stewardship for Sustainable Outcomes

Engaging fishermen fosters a sense of ownership and stewardship, creating a foundation for balanced approaches that benefit both people and nature.

• Environmental Stewardship: Participants demonstrated a strong stewardship ethic, recognizing that their livelihoods depend on a healthy marine environment. This intrinsic motivation to protect the resource is a powerful asset for conservation that is often overlooked.
• Understanding of Human-Nature Relationships: Fishermen offer a nuanced perspective on coexistence, arguing for a balanced approach that accepts a tolerable level of interaction rather than aiming for an unrealistic zero-risk scenario. This pragmatic view is vital for crafting policies under SDG 16 that are both effective and equitable, ensuring that conservation goals do not come at the cost of human well-being.

Discussion: A Coexistence Framework for Sustainable Development

This study demonstrates that the impacts of whale entanglement in the Dungeness crab fishery extend far beyond economic losses, touching upon fundamental aspects of social equity, institutional trust, and cultural identity. The current management approach, by focusing narrowly on ecological risk to whales, inadvertently undermines progress toward SDG 1, SDG 8, SDG 10, SDG 11, and SDG 16.

A paradigm shift is required, moving from a conflict-oriented framework to one of coexistence. This involves reframing the issue to recognize the interconnectedness of human and environmental well-being. Achieving the goals of SDG 14 (Life Below Water) cannot be done in isolation; it requires strategies that also support sustainable livelihoods and resilient communities. By sidelining the human dimensions of the fishery, current policies not only harm fishing communities but also miss a critical opportunity to leverage their knowledge for more effective conservation outcomes.

The path forward lies in developing holistic, co-management strategies that integrate fishermen as key partners. This aligns with SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) and fosters the creation of inclusive institutions under SDG 16. Engaging fishermen’s ecological knowledge, on-water experience, and stewardship ethos can lead to innovative, balanced solutions that support both thriving whale populations and viable fishing livelihoods. This case study provides a transferable model for addressing HWC in a manner that advances a comprehensive and integrated sustainable development agenda.

Methodological Framework

This qualitative study employed a phenomenological approach to understand the lived experiences of fishermen concerning HWC. The methodology was designed to center participant perspectives and build a conceptual framework grounded in empirical data.

Data Collection and Participant Selection

1. Participant Selection: Twenty-seven commercial Dungeness crab fishermen were selected through respondent-driven and snowball sampling to ensure a diversity of perspectives across geography, production level, and experience. All participation was voluntary and conducted under IRB-approved protocols.
2. Interviews: Semi-structured interviews were conducted in person and by phone. The protocol included fixed-response questions for demographic data and open-ended questions to explore beliefs and experiences regarding whale entanglement and fisheries management.
3. Trust and Rapport: Significant effort was made to build trust with the fishing community prior to and during data collection to foster candid conversation and ensure the ethical integrity of the research.

Data Analysis

A concurrent data collection and analysis process was used, employing both inductive and deductive methods.

• Coding: Interview transcripts were coded using NVivo 12 software. A codebook was developed to identify key themes, with a focus on in vivo codes that captured the direct language of participants.
• Analysis Techniques: Reflective analytic memos, data clustering, and network models were used to identify patterns, test propositions, and draw analytical conclusions from the qualitative data.
• Validity and Bias Mitigation: Strategies to ensure interpretive validity included frequent reflection on researcher positionality, negative case sampling to challenge emerging themes, and member checking to verify interpretations with participants.

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

The article on the conflict between whale conservation and the Dungeness crab fishery in California touches upon several interconnected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The core issues of marine conservation, economic livelihoods, climate change impacts, and governance failures link directly to the following SDGs:

• SDG 14: Life Below Water: This is the most central SDG. The article revolves around the conflict between conserving marine wildlife (humpback whales) and the sustainable use of marine resources (Dungeness crab fishery). It directly addresses issues of bycatch (“whale entanglement in fishing gear”), the health of marine ecosystems, and the need for sustainable fisheries management.
• SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth: The article extensively details the socioeconomic impacts on the fishing community. It highlights the “loss of livelihood and identity,” “income losses,” and the threat to the economic viability of the fishery, which “provides the primary basis of many fishermen’s livelihoods.” This connects directly to the goal of promoting sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth and decent work.
• SDG 13: Climate Action: The article explicitly identifies climate change as a primary driver of the escalating conflict. It states that “Climate change-related shifts in marine resource availability and species behavior are increasing rates of human-wildlife conflict (HWC)” and points to a “prolonged marine heatwave event” as a key factor that “drove a sharp spike in whale entanglements.”
• SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities: The article discusses the “marginalization” of the fishing community and the “inequity within the fleet.” It notes that management actions disproportionately affect “smaller-scale fishing operations” and that fishermen feel excluded from decision-making processes, creating a power imbalance between them, government agencies, and environmental NGOs.
• SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: The research points to a failure in governance, highlighting an “erosion of trust” between fishermen and institutions like fisheries managers and ENGOs. It criticizes the current management program (RAMP) for not being holistic and calls for more “responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making” that incorporates the voice and expertise of the fishing community.
• SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals: A key conclusion of the article is the need for collaboration to resolve the conflict. It advocates for “interdisciplinary research and resource co-management” and partnerships between fishermen, scientists, and government agencies to develop “equitable co-management and conservation strategies.”

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

Based on the specific issues discussed, the following SDG targets are directly relevant:

1. Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans.
   • Explanation: The entire article is about managing the conflict within a marine ecosystem to protect both whale populations (a key part of the ecosystem) and the sustainability of the crab fishery. The call for a “balanced approach” that ensures coexistence speaks directly to this target.
2. Target 14.4: By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans…
   • Explanation: The issue of whale entanglement is a form of destructive fishing impact (bycatch). The article discusses the implementation of management plans like RAMP and the need to improve them by incorporating fishermen’s “ecological knowledge” and “on-water experience” to make them more effective and less harmful to livelihoods.
3. Target 14.b: Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets.
   • Explanation: The article explicitly states that “smaller-scale fishing operations, which often rely heavily on crab, are disproportionately impacted by fishing restrictions.” This highlights the need to ensure that management actions do not unfairly penalize small-scale fishers, which is the essence of this target.
4. Target 8.5: By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men…and equal pay for work of equal value.
   • Explanation: The article’s focus on the “loss of livelihood,” “income losses,” and the psychological toll on fishermen (“I’m struggling. I haven’t made a dime”) directly relates to the goal of ensuring decent work and economic security for this community.
5. Target 10.2: By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status.
   • Explanation: The study highlights fishermen’s feelings of “marginalization” and exclusion from decision-making (“I just feel like the fishermen get left out”). The call to integrate their “voice and expertise” is a call for their political and social inclusion in the management process.
6. Target 16.7: Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels.
   • Explanation: The article critiques the current top-down management approach where fishermen feel their input is ignored (“they just go right back to what they’ve already decided”). It advocates for a co-management model where fishermen are active participants, making the decision-making process more inclusive and responsive.
7. Target 17.17: Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships.
   • Explanation: The paper concludes by emphasizing the need for collaboration. It suggests that engaging fishermen’s knowledge alongside scientists and managers is crucial for developing “mutually beneficial outcomes.” This points directly to the need for effective multi-stakeholder partnerships.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

Yes, the article mentions several quantitative and qualitative indicators that can be used to measure progress:

• Quantitative Indicators:
  • Rate of whale entanglement: The article provides specific numbers that serve as a baseline indicator for Target 14.4. It notes a decrease from an “annual average of 42 confirmed whale entanglements” (2014-2017) to an “average of 28” (2018-2023), with the Dungeness crab fishery’s share falling from “12 cases per year” to “6 cases per year.” Continued monitoring of this rate would measure the success of mitigation efforts.
  • Economic value and income: The article mentions the fishery’s seasonal revenue (“$53 million”) and reports of individual income loss (“nearly forty percent loss in total income”). Tracking these figures would be an indicator for Target 8.5, measuring the economic health of the fishery and the livelihoods it supports.
  • Fishing opportunity: The reduction in the length of the fishing season from “nearly eight months” to “only a couple of months” is a clear indicator of reduced opportunity. Measuring the number of allowable fishing days per season would track progress towards balancing conservation and economic activity.
• Qualitative and Process-Based Indicators:
  • Level of stakeholder inclusion in governance: The article describes fishermen’s feelings of “marginalization” and “powerlessness.” An indicator for Targets 10.2 and 16.7 would be the establishment of formal co-management bodies and the documented integration of fishermen’s feedback into management decisions, such as revisions to the RAMP.
  • Level of trust between stakeholders: The “erosion of trust” is identified as a key problem. Progress towards Target 16.7 could be measured through surveys or qualitative interviews assessing the level of trust between fishermen, managers, and ENGOs over time.
  • Integration of local and traditional knowledge: The article calls for engaging fishermen’s “ecological knowledge” and “on-water experience.” An indicator for Target 14.4 and 17.17 would be the formal inclusion of this knowledge in scientific assessments and management plans, moving beyond purely model-based data.

4. Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

SDGs	Targets	Indicators Identified in the Article
SDG 14: Life Below Water	14.2: Sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems. 14.4: Effectively regulate harvesting and end destructive fishing practices. 14.b: Provide access for small-scale fishers to marine resources.	Annual number/rate of confirmed whale entanglements (decreased from 12 to 6 per year for the fishery). Implementation and effectiveness of management programs (e.g., RAMP). Integration of fishermen’s ecological knowledge into management. Data on the disproportionate impact of fishing restrictions on small-scale boats.
SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth	8.5: Achieve full and productive employment and decent work.	Total seasonal revenue of the fishery ($53 million). Percentage of income loss reported by fishermen (e.g., “nearly forty percent loss”). Length of the fishing season as a measure of work opportunity (shortened from 8 months to 2). Qualitative accounts of livelihood and identity loss.
SDG 13: Climate Action	13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards.	Mention of “prolonged marine heatwave event” as a driver of conflict. Need for management strategies that are adaptive to climate-driven ecosystem shifts.
SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities	10.2: Empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all.	Qualitative descriptions of fishermen’s “marginalization” and feeling “left out” of decision-making. Evidence of inequity within the fleet (small vs. large boats).
SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions	16.7: Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making.	Descriptions of the “erosion of trust” between fishermen and managers/ENGOs. Fishermen’s perception that management is not responsive to their needs or expertise. Calls for a more inclusive and balanced approach to HWC management.
SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals	17.17: Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships.	The call for collaboration between fishermen, scientists, and managers. The proposal to use fishermen’s knowledge as a data source (“eyes and ears” of managers). The study itself as an example of a partnership between academia and the fishing industry.

Source: nature.com