Fixing the Pipeline: Women’s Workforce Participation in India, Nigeria, and Kenya – orfonline.org

Report on Women’s Workforce Participation and the Sustainable Development Goals in India, Nigeria, and Kenya

Introduction: Aligning Economic Empowerment with Global Goals

Structural constraints across the Global South continue to impede women’s full participation in the workforce, undermining progress towards key Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). Systemic barriers, including the prevalence of informal work, wage disparities, the burden of unpaid care (a challenge to SDG 5.4), and underrepresentation in leadership, prevent women from achieving economic parity. This report analyzes the distinct challenges and opportunities in India, Nigeria, and Kenya, examining how localized solutions can accelerate progress towards ensuring women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership (SDG 5.5).

Comparative Analysis of Workforce Pipeline Gaps

Key Findings Across Nations

Despite varied contexts, women in all three nations hold less than 30 percent of senior leadership positions. The primary points of attrition in the corporate pipeline, however, differ significantly, indicating that targeted interventions are required to achieve SDG 5 and SDG 8.

• India: The most significant barrier is the initial promotion from entry-level to manager, a phenomenon known as the ‘broken rung’. This early-career attrition severely limits the pool of women available for senior roles.
• Nigeria: While demonstrating the strongest pipeline from manager to C-suite, Nigeria faces a fundamental challenge in ensuring women’s entry into formal employment at the outset.
• Kenya: Women’s representation is strong at the entry-level but experiences a “declining funnel” or ‘double dip’ attrition at both the first promotion and again before senior leadership, hindering progress towards SDG 5.5.

Data on Female Representation in the Corporate Pipeline (%)

1. India
   • Entry-Level: 33%
   • Manager Level: 24%
   • C-Suite: 17%
2. Nigeria
   • Entry-Level: 33%
   • Manager Level: 29%
   • C-Suite: 29%
3. Kenya
   • Entry-Level: 40% (Private) / 46% (Public)
   • Manager Level: 34% (Private) / 46% (Public)
   • C-Suite: 28% (Private) / 27% (Public)

Country-Specific Analysis through the SDG Lens

India: The ‘Broken Rung’ and its Impact on SDG 5 and SDG 8

India’s primary challenge is the ‘broken rung,’ where the pipeline leaks most severely between entry-level (33%) and manager (24%) roles. This structural failure directly contravenes the goal of ensuring decent work and economic inclusion (SDG 8). Although female labor force participation has officially risen, this is largely attributed to an increase in unpaid and low-paid self-employment in rural areas, not the creation of secure, formal jobs as envisioned by SDG 8.5. Furthermore, a significant disconnect exists between high educational attainment (SDG 4), with women comprising nearly 48% of higher education enrollment, and their low representation in corporate leadership. This highlights a systemic failure to translate educational gains into economic empowerment, a core tenet of SDG 5.

Kenya: Mid-Career Attrition as a Barrier to SDG 5.5

Kenya demonstrates that parity at entry-level is insufficient for achieving gender equality in leadership. The workforce pipeline suffers from a ‘double dip,’ with significant drop-offs at the first promotion and again before senior leadership. This mid-career attrition is often linked to the disproportionate burden of unpaid care and domestic work, a critical barrier recognized in SDG 5.4. The opportunity costs associated with promotion—such as networking and upskilling versus family responsibilities—force many women out of the leadership track. This directly impedes the achievement of SDG 5.5, which calls for women’s full participation in leadership and decision-making.

Nigeria: Formal Sector Entry Gaps and Progress Towards SDG 8

Nigeria presents a paradox: while women constitute nearly half of the total labor force, they hold only 33% of formal entry-level positions. This initial barrier, shaped by gender norms and opaque hiring, limits access to decent work (SDG 8) from the start. However, for women who enter the formal sector, the progression to leadership (29% at C-suite) is stronger than in India or Kenya. The legal sector serves as a model, with near-parity throughout the pipeline, demonstrating that transparent, skills-based advancement systems can effectively promote SDG 5 and SDG 8. The challenge for Nigeria is to replicate this success across other sectors and widen the entry gates to formal employment for women.

Strategic Recommendations for Achieving SDG 5 and SDG 8

Cross-Cutting Policy and Corporate Strategies

To address these pipeline failures and accelerate progress on the 2030 Agenda, companies and policymakers must adopt targeted, evidence-based strategies. The following recommendations are crucial for building an inclusive workforce:

• Invest in Mentorship and Sponsorship: Formal programs are essential for building the ‘experience capital’ women need for promotion, directly supporting the objective of SDG 5.5 (women in leadership).
• Normalize Flexible Work Arrangements: Flexible and remote work options help mitigate the unpaid care burden (SDG 5.4) and enable women to remain in the workforce, contributing to full and productive employment for all (SDG 8.5).
• Strengthen University-to-Workforce Pathways: To capitalize on educational achievements (SDG 4), companies must create structured internships and targeted recruitment programs to bridge the gap between women’s high enrollment in tertiary education and their underrepresentation in the formal economy.
• Develop the ‘Care Economy’: Public and private investment in care infrastructure (childcare, elder care) is a direct policy action to recognize and value unpaid care work (SDG 5.4). This not only frees women’s time for paid employment but also creates new, decent jobs (SDG 8), fostering inclusive economic growth.

Conclusion: Localized Solutions for Global Goals

Achieving gender equality and decent work for all requires moving beyond one-size-fits-all models. The distinct challenges in India, Nigeria, and Kenya—from India’s ‘broken rung’ to Kenya’s mid-career drop-offs and Nigeria’s formal entry barriers—demand tailored solutions. By implementing localized, data-driven strategies that address specific points of failure, nations in the Global South can effectively advance women’s economic participation and meet their commitments to the Sustainable Development Goals.

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

1. SDG 5: Gender Equality

   • The article’s central theme is the disparity in workforce participation and leadership opportunities for women in India, Nigeria, and Kenya. It directly addresses the goal of achieving gender equality by analyzing “structural constraints,” the “broken rung” for promotions, and the underrepresentation of women in senior leadership and C-suite roles.

2. SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

   • The article focuses on women’s participation in the labor market, discussing issues like the quality of work (formal vs. informal), wage disparities (“lower wages”), and the overall female labour force participation rate (FLFPR). It explores pathways to “full and productive employment and decent work for all women.”

3. SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities

   • By highlighting the systemic barriers that prevent women from advancing in their careers compared to men, the article directly addresses the issue of reducing inequalities. It points out that “Men are 2.4 times more likely to be promoted from entry to manager roles,” which is a clear example of inequality of outcome.

4. SDG 4: Quality Education

   • The article connects education to employment outcomes, noting a “clear disconnect” in India where women constitute nearly “48 percent of enrolled students” in higher education but fail to reach senior leadership roles. It suggests solutions like partnerships with universities to bridge the “school-to-work” gap.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

1. SDG 5: Gender Equality

   • Target 5.5: Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.

     The article is fundamentally about this target. It provides detailed statistics on the percentage of women at entry-level, manager, and C-suite positions in India, Nigeria, and Kenya, directly analyzing the “pipeline” for women into leadership roles in economic life.

   • Target 5.4: Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work.

     The article explicitly identifies “time poverty from unpaid care” and “care burdens” as significant barriers restricting women’s career progression. It proposes investing in the “care economy” as a solution to lift this “invisible burden of work on women.”

2. SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

   • Target 8.5: By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men… and equal pay for work of equal value.

     The article discusses the challenges women face in securing formal employment, their overrepresentation in “informal and subsistence work,” and the issue of “lower wages.” It also mentions India’s ambition of “achieving a 70 percent female workforce by 2047,” which aligns with the goal of full employment.

3. SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities

   • Target 10.3: Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome…

     The article highlights the “broken rung” phenomenon, where women are less likely to receive their first promotion to manager. It cites that “Men are 2.4 times more likely to be promoted,” directly pointing to an inequality of opportunity and outcome that needs to be addressed through policies and organizational overhaul.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

1. For Target 5.5 (Equal opportunities for leadership)

   • Proportion of women in managerial positions: The article provides explicit data for this indicator. For example, it states women hold only “24 percent of manager positions” in India and “29 percent of roles from manager to C-suite” in Nigeria.
   • Proportion of women in senior leadership (C-Suite): The article gives precise figures: “just 17 percent in India,” “29 percent in Nigeria,” and “27 percent in Kenya.”
   • Proportion of women on corporate boards: The article mentions that in India, board-level numbers are “stronger (20 percent), but that’s largely driven by regulation.”

2. For Target 8.5 (Full and productive employment)

   • Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR): The article explicitly cites India’s FLFPR, noting its increase “from 23.3 percent in 2017–18 to 41.7 percent in 2023–24.”
   • Proportion of women in informal employment: This is an implied indicator. The article states that “most women in these countries still work informally” and that the rise in India’s FLFPR is attributed to “unpaid and low-paid self-employed women in rural areas.”

3. For Target 10.3 (Ensure equal opportunity)

   • Promotion rate ratio (men vs. women): The article provides a direct metric for this, stating that in India, “Men are 2.4 times more likely to be promoted from entry to manager roles.”
   • Job attrition rate ratio (women vs. men): The article offers a clear indicator of inequality, noting that “junior-level women employees are also 1.3 times more likely to leave their jobs than men.”

4. For Target 5.4 (Value unpaid care work)

   • Time spent on unpaid care: While not providing a number, the article identifies “time poverty from unpaid care” as a key barrier. The reduction of this time poverty is an implied indicator of progress.

4. Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

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