Perspectives on climate change in South Asia – Nature

 

A Report on Climate Change Challenges and Sustainable Development in South Asia

Introduction

South Asia, a region representing approximately one-quarter of the global population, is critically exposed to the impacts of climate change. This report synthesizes the perspectives of nine regional researchers on the progress and pressing challenges in climate change mitigation and adaptation. The analysis emphasizes the intricate connections between climate action and the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), highlighting the need for integrated, equitable, and collaborative solutions to foster regional resilience.

Regional Analysis of Climate Change Impacts and Sustainable Development

Advancing Equity in Clean Energy Transitions

Shree Raj Shakya’s analysis focuses on the energy sector’s transformation in South Asia, directly addressing SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). The region’s increasing energy demand, driven by socio-economic development, presents a critical challenge to SDG 13 (Climate Action).

• Challenges to SDG 7:
  1. Heavy reliance on imported, emissions-intensive fossil fuels leads to price volatility and energy insecurity.
  2. Systemic barriers, such as the intermittent nature of renewables, hinder the deployment of solar and wind resources, requiring investment in storage and grid integration.
  3. Fragmented governance, weak institutional capacity, and inadequate financing impede the implementation of ambitious national strategies.
• Recommendations for Sustainable Development:
  1. Prioritize decentralized renewable energy systems, such as solar microgrids, which offer co-benefits for SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by reducing air pollution and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).
  2. Integrate energy equity into policy to ensure marginalized populations are not left behind, preventing the exacerbation of inequalities (SDG 10).
  3. Foster regional cooperation and cross-border power trade to enhance energy reliability and leverage shared resources, supporting SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).

Climate Mitigation in India Through Forestry

Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi reports on India’s forestry sector as a key component of its climate mitigation strategy, aligning with SDG 15 (Life on Land) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). Forests currently sequester approximately 5% of the nation’s total emissions.

• Barriers to Achieving SDG 15:
  1. A lack of long-term, ground-based ecological data restricts the ability to model the combined impacts of climate change and anthropogenic pressures on forests.
  2. Implementation of restoration projects is hindered by financial constraints and limited access to specialized resources.
  3. The absence of a robust, publicly available land-use change dataset prevents the strategic identification of priority areas for mitigation.
  4. Public skepticism exists due to concerns over forest fires and tree falls in populated areas.
• Proposed Actions for Climate and Land Use Goals:
  1. Scale up the Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) programme to cover diverse ecosystems and carbon pools.
  2. Utilize technological advancements like LIDAR and remote sensing to fill data gaps and create transparent verification mechanisms.
  3. Strengthen the link between forestry research and mitigation actions to ensure policies are evidence-based.

Integrating Biogeochemistry into Mangrove Conservation

Abhra Chanda’s viewpoint underscores the threats to South Asian mangroves, particularly the Sundarbans, impacting SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 15 (Life on Land), and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). These ecosystems are vital for coastal protection, blue carbon sequestration, and supporting livelihoods.

• Threats to Coastal Ecosystems and Livelihoods:
  1. Climate impacts (sea-level rise, extreme weather) and anthropogenic drivers (pollution, salinization) are causing mangrove retreat and deteriorating ecosystem health.
  2. Conservation efforts, often limited to post-disaster plantation drives, frequently fail by neglecting the critical role of estuarine and sediment biogeochemistry.
  3. A significant gap exists between scientific research and policymaking, hindered by logistical constraints and a lack of long-term monitoring data.
• Pathways to Sustainable Management:
  1. Establish systematic, real-time monitoring of aquatic biogeochemical parameters to inform species and site selection for restoration.
  2. Foster dialogue between scientists and policymakers to integrate biogeochemical data into climate goals, aligning with SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions).
  3. Develop a homogeneous, cross-border monitoring protocol for the Sundarbans through diplomatic channels, promoting SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).

Managing Compound Climate Extremes in Pakistan

Saadia Hina highlights the escalating crisis of compound climate extremes in Pakistan, which directly undermines progress on SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being).

• Analysis of Compounding Risks:
  1. The succession of heatwaves, droughts, and floods, as seen in 2022, multiplies damage and overwhelms response capacities.
  2. Traditional climate models are insufficient for forecasting the complex interconnections of concurrent extreme events.
  3. A substantial gap persists between scientific research and actionable policy, hampered by poor coordination among government agencies and limited data.
• Recommendations for Building Resilience:
  1. Develop advanced modeling approaches designed for synchronous extreme events.
  2. Invest in human capital, scientific research, and institutional systems (SDG 16) to bridge the gap between research and action.
  3. Advance integrated early-warning systems and foster interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and communities to shift from reactive to anticipatory adaptation strategies.

Labour Migration as Climate Change Adaptation

Chandni Singh examines labour migration as a critical adaptation strategy in India, linking climate impacts to SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).

• Vulnerabilities of Climate Migrants:
  1. Migrants often work in unsafe, climate-exposed informal sectors and live in hazardous areas with inadequate protection, undermining SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).
  2. They face limited access to health and education and are often excluded from social protection schemes, which are typically linked to domicile.
  3. Climate change is making migration riskier, narrowing its potential as an effective adaptive strategy.
• Policy Imperatives for Inclusive Adaptation:
  1. Acknowledge labour migrants as a vulnerable group in climate action plans.
  2. Overcome the sedentary bias in policymaking that expects people to remain in place.
  3. Improve data collection on climate-induced migration to inform policies that protect migrant rights and build adaptive capacity across rural and urban spaces.

Creating Urban Resilience Through Policy and Planning

Nausheen H. Anwar addresses the challenge of embedding climate adaptation within the urban fabric of Pakistan, focusing on SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). The majority of the urban population in cities like Karachi resides in informal settlements, which are largely invisible to formal adaptation efforts.

• Challenges in Urban Climate Governance:
  1. Governance fragmentation, political volatility, and limited municipal capacity hinder systematic, climate-responsive planning.
  2. Urban development policies often prioritize short-term economic growth over long-term risk reduction.
  3. Climate finance mechanisms frequently bypass local governments and fail to account for informal urban realities.
• Strategies for Resilient and Inclusive Cities:
  1. Reframe climate adaptation as an integral component of urban development, not an add-on.
  2. Promote the co-production of knowledge by engaging researchers, policymakers, and community organizations in participatory risk mapping and planning (SDG 17).
  3. Tailor climate finance to support community-led adaptation and build institutional capacity (SDG 16), ensuring that efforts contribute to SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).

Prioritizing Biodiversity in Decision-Making

Chaya Sarathchandra reports on the threat of multi-factor global change to biodiversity and ecosystem services in Sri Lanka, a biodiversity hotspot. This directly impacts SDG 15 (Life on Land) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water), with cascading effects on human health and livelihoods.

• Drivers of Ecosystem Degradation:
  1. High rates of deforestation and coastal degradation are causing species loss and impacting ecosystem services, including carbon storage (SDG 13).
  2. The ongoing economic crisis has reduced research funding and increased pressure to release protected lands for development projects.
  3. Lack of data, regulatory loopholes, and weak institutions make it difficult to quantify and prevent environmental losses.
• Frameworks for Sustainable Development:
  1. Implement land-use governance frameworks, such as the Environmentally Sensitive Areas project, to prioritize biodiversity preservation.
  2. Strengthen integrated coastal zone management programmes to enhance climate resilience and protect ecosystem services that support local economies.
  3. Integrate principles of sustainable development into all national policies and programmes to reverse environmental degradation.

Air Pollution and Extreme Weather Events

Suvarna Fadnavis discusses the compounding challenge of air pollution on climate resilience in South Asia, affecting SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

• Atmospheric Dynamics and Climate Impacts:
  1. Large emissions of aerosols from industrial and other activities modulate monsoon circulation and have exacerbated greenhouse gas-induced warming.
  2. This has contributed to catastrophic events, including heatwaves, extreme precipitation, and accelerated glacial melting.
  3. Climate models often lack sufficient observational data on aerosols and other chemical species, limiting their predictive accuracy.
• An Integrated Approach to Climate and Air Quality:
  1. Raise community-level awareness to reduce pollution-causing practices.
  2. Promote multi-level collaborations on technology, data collection, and policymaking (SDG 17).
  3. Assimilate high-resolution observational data into climate models to improve early-warning systems and disaster management, thereby building a climate-resilient South Asia.

System Shifts for Climate-Resilient Agriculture

T. S. Amjath-Babu addresses the systemic changes required to ensure food security in South Asia, a critical issue for SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). While adaptive innovations exist, their uptake is hindered by systemic barriers.

• Barriers to Agricultural Adaptation:
  1. Shifting to stress-tolerant crops requires changes across the entire value chain, from seed supply to consumer acceptance, which are not well understood or supported.
  2. High transaction costs, labour shortages, and land fragmentation restrict the accessibility of resilient technologies for smallholder farmers.
  3. A digital divide limits the effectiveness of digital climate services, and current financing and insurance models are often inadequate or unsustainable.
• Fostering a System-Level Transition:
  1. Empower local institutional actors (SDG 16) to coordinate farmers, assess adaptation options, and resolve value-chain breakages.
  2. Enhance farmer-to-farmer learning models to bridge the gap between innovation and implementation.
  3. Conduct research that addresses the system-level implications of adaptation to prevent institutional failures from hindering progress towards SDG 2.

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

The article discusses a wide range of climate change impacts and responses in South Asia, connecting to several Sustainable Development Goals. The analysis reveals links to the following SDGs:

• SDG 2: Zero Hunger – Addresses climate-resilient agriculture and food security.
• SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being – Discusses the health impacts of air pollution and climate-related disasters.
• SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation – Highlights issues of water pollution in coastal ecosystems.
• SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy – Focuses on the transition to clean and renewable energy.
• SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth – Examines labor migration as a climate adaptation strategy and the working conditions of migrants.
• SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities – Touches upon energy equity and the vulnerability of marginalized populations, including migrants.
• SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities – Discusses urban resilience, informal settlements, air pollution, and disaster risk reduction in cities.
• SDG 13: Climate Action – This is the central theme, covering mitigation, adaptation, resilience, and policy integration across all sections.
• SDG 14: Life Below Water – Focuses on the conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems, specifically mangroves.
• SDG 15: Life on Land – Addresses forestry, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and land degradation.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

Based on the specific issues raised by the researchers, the following SDG targets are directly relevant:

1. SDG 2: Zero Hunger

   • Target 2.4: By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality. This is addressed in the section on “system shifts underlying climate-resilient agriculture,” which discusses the need for stress-tolerant crops and adaptive innovations to ensure food security.

2. SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

   • Target 7.1: By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services. The article mentions enhancing “energy access” and addressing “affordability disparities” as crucial for an inclusive energy transition in South Asia.
   • Target 7.2: By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. This is a core theme in Shree Raj Shakya’s section, which highlights the region’s potential for hydropower, solar, and wind energy and calls for greater deployment of renewables.
   • Target 7.b: By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries. The need for “investment in energy storage solutions such as pumped hydropower, batteries and regional grid integration” directly relates to this target.

3. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

   • Target 11.5: By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations. The article explicitly mentions the 2022 Pakistan floods that “killed 1,700 people and displacing around 8 million others,” highlighting the urgency of this target.
   • Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management. The discussion on air pollution from traffic, industry, and fossil fuels in urban areas, and the co-benefit of reducing “ambient air pollution” through renewable energy, connects to this target.
   • Target 11.b: By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters. The call for “climate-responsive planning,” “locally grounded adaptation plans,” and embedding adaptation into “urban development” policies for cities like Karachi directly supports this target.

4. SDG 13: Climate Action

   • Target 13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries. This target is central to the entire article, which discusses adaptation strategies for agriculture, urban areas, and coastal zones, and highlights the need to manage “compound climate extremes.”
   • Target 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning. The article repeatedly points out the gap between ambitious national strategies “on paper” and their actual implementation, calling for better integration of climate science into forestry, urban planning, and energy policies.
   • Target 13.3: Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning. The need for “public awareness through community science campaigns,” “fostering interdisciplinary research,” and enhancing collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and communities is a recurring theme.

5. SDG 14: Life Below Water

   • Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. The article describes how estuaries in the Sundarbans are suffering from “persistent organic pollutants, and heavy-metal and microplastic pollution,” directly linking to this target.
   • Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans. The entire section on mangrove conservation, which emphasizes protecting these ecosystems from salinization, pollution, and sea-level rise, is aligned with this target.

6. SDG 15: Life on Land

   • Target 15.2: By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally. The discussion on India’s tree-planting initiatives, challenges in restoration projects, and the role of forests in climate mitigation directly addresses this target.
   • Target 15.3: By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world. The mention of “severe drought phase” in Pakistan and challenges to coastal livelihoods from “salinization” relates to the restoration of degraded land.
   • Target 15.9: By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts. The call to “prioritize biodiversity preservation during ongoing development” in Sri Lanka through projects like the Environmentally Sensitive Areas project is a direct reflection of this target.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

The article mentions or implies several indicators that can be used to track progress on the identified targets:

1. For SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy)

   • Indicator 7.2.1: Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption. The article discusses increasing the deployment of hydropower, solar, and wind energy to meet rising demand.
   • Implied Indicator: Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The text mentions that decentralized renewable energy systems can reduce “greenhouse gas emissions.”

2. For SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities)

   • Indicator 11.5.1: Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population. The article provides concrete numbers for the 2022 Pakistan floods: “killing 1,700 people and displacing around 8 million others.”
   • Indicator 11.6.2: Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (e.g. PM2.5) in cities. The article refers to “ambient air pollution” in urban areas and the large emissions of “aerosol particles” from traffic and industry.

3. For SDG 13 (Climate Action)

   • Implied Indicator: Number of countries with integrated national adaptation and mitigation plans. The article critiques the gap between plans “on paper” and implementation, implying that the existence and effectiveness of such plans are key metrics.
   • Implied Indicator: Functionality of early-warning systems. The text highlights the need to move from “warning dissemination” to “actionable response” and develop “integrated early-warning systems.”

4. For SDG 14 (Life Below Water)

   • Implied Indicator: Concentration of pollutants in coastal waters. The mention of “rapid salinization, persistent organic pollutants, and heavy-metal and microplastic pollution” suggests that monitoring these parameters is a necessary indicator.
   • Implied Indicator: Health and coverage of mangrove ecosystems. The discussion of “mangrove retreat, top-dying disease of mangroves, deteriorating mangrove health” implies that the condition and extent of these forests are critical measures.

5. For SDG 15 (Life on Land)

   • Indicator 15.1.1: Forest area as a proportion of total land area. The article mentions India’s success in conserving “a proportion of its forest cover.”
   • Implied Indicator: Carbon sequestration by forests. The article quantifies that “Forest-based mitigation currently sequesters about 5% of India’s national total emissions.”
   • Implied Indicator: Survival rate of planted trees. A key challenge identified is the lack of a mechanism to “track survival and mortality of trees” in restoration projects.

4. Summary Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

SDGs	Targets	Indicators (Mentioned or Implied in the Article)
SDG 2: Zero Hunger	2.4: Ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices.	Uptake of stress-tolerant crop varieties and climate-smart technologies.
SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy	7.1: Ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services. 7.2: Increase substantially the share of renewable energy. 7.b: Expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for sustainable energy.	Share of renewable energy (hydropower, solar, wind) in the energy mix; Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector; Level of investment in energy storage and grid integration.
SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities	11.5: Reduce deaths and people affected by disasters. 11.6: Reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities (e.g., air quality). 11.b: Implement integrated policies for climate change adaptation and disaster resilience.	Number of deaths and displaced people from disasters (e.g., 1,700 deaths, 8 million displaced in Pakistan floods); Levels of ambient air pollution in cities; Existence of integrated urban adaptation plans.
SDG 13: Climate Action	13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity. 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies. 13.3: Improve education, awareness, and institutional capacity.	Implementation of anticipatory adaptation strategies; Development of integrated early-warning systems; Integration of climate science into national and local policies (forestry, urban planning).
SDG 14: Life Below Water	14.1: Reduce marine pollution. 14.2: Protect and restore marine and coastal ecosystems.	Concentration of pollutants (heavy metals, microplastics) in estuaries; Health, coverage, and retreat/degradation rate of mangrove forests.
SDG 15: Life on Land	15.2: Promote sustainable forest management, halt deforestation, and restore forests. 15.3: Combat desertification and restore degraded land. 15.9: Integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into planning.	Forest area as a proportion of total land area; Carbon sequestration rate by forests (e.g., 5% of India’s emissions); Survival and mortality rates of planted trees; Rate of deforestation and land degradation.

Source: nature.com